Business Research Methodology

 

 

 

 

   

Business Research Methods

Course of content:-

v Unit 1:- introductions to Research

v Unit2 :- literature Review and theoretical framework

v Unit 3 :- problem definition and Hypothesis Formulations

v Unit 4 :-Research Design

v Unit 5:- Measurement, Scaling and Sampling

v Unit6 :- Data collections and Analysis

v Unit 7:- Writing proposal and Project Reports

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

v unit 1:- introductions to Research

concept of Research:

research refers to the act of searching new knowledge through a repetitive and systematic process. Research is conducted for two purpose, one is to enhance the existing knowledge or to develop the new theory in the concerned field and second for identifying the problem and searching the solutions of such problems. Thus, research refers to the process of of systematic enquiry or investigation into a specific problems or issue that leads to new or improved knowledge for solving the problems. An educational activity that finds the problems and solutions of the problems this is terms as research . a set of methods that are used in identifying problems collecting information’s analyzing data and drawing conclusion this  called as research methodology.

According to F.N kerlinger:-“research is systematic controlled empirical and critical investigations and hypothesis propositions about the presumed relation among the natural phenomena.”

Natures and features of research

some common features of research are given below:-

1.      objectives:-  a good research should be objective and it must be answer the research questions specially not in subjective way. This requires the formulation of proper hypothesis, otherwise there may, be lack of congruence between the research questions and hypothesis.

2.      Generalization:- generally, research is undertaken consideration to the sample. The finding found from the  research should be applicable in the  large population even though it is drawn from sample.

3.      Free from personal biases:- a good research must be free from the researcher’s personal biases and must be based on objectivity and not subjectivity. It means that methodology should be used so that researcher can not use his/her perceptions and change the data for manipulating the result.

4.      Reproducible :- a good researcher should be able o get approximately the same result by using an identical methodology if investigation is conducted on a population having characteristics similar to the earlier study.

5.      Directed toward solution of aproblem:- research identifies the problem and investigate on every aspect of the problems. It tries to find out the probable solution of suh problem through depth study. The research is always directed to solutions of the problems.

6.      Logical :-researcher collect the information from various sources and interprets the information. Research does not only present the result on the basis of interpretation but proves those result using various logic.

7.      Replicable:- conducting a research using same, methodology is replicability. Conducting research in the same subject repetitively helps to increase the reliability of research result. Previous theories should be tested again to improve in those theories after a pace of time and such repeatedly tested result can be easily generalized in the large numbers of organizations.

Scientific Research

Systematic investigation on the basis of specified method and logic is known as logic. There are some scientific methods and procedures to undertake the research. Thus a systematic controlled empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among  natural phenomena is known as scientific research. Generally scientific research is conducted for solving the problems. It analysis all the dimensions of the problem systematically, and finds out the causes of problem collects and interpret the data and find out the solutions of the problems. Thus scientific research is not undertaken based on intuition, experience and estimation but it remains always purposive and comprehensive.

Features of scientific research:-  

Scientific research is a systematic and empirical research that is conducted based on evidence and logics. In this regards, the key features of scientific research are explained belows:-

·         Rigorous: use of good theoretical base and a sound methodological design is considered as rigorous study in research. Rigorous study refers to the carefulness and degree of exactness in research investigation supposes, if any one is doing research considering to few sample then such research is not rigorous research so that the result may not be conclusive there may be biasness in asking questions and many other influences. 

·         Purposive:- a research should start with definite aim. If research is conducted without any aim, such research is useless. Purpose of research determine the process of sample selection, data collection and its interpretation. Thus if researcher is able to set the clear and operational objectives then he/ she can avoid the error and come to the real conclusion.

·         Replicability:- if the same result is found while conducting the research again then the result is obtain is considered as replicable. Scientific research requires such quality. If observation are not repeatable, then our finding or result are considered unreliable.

·         Objective:- the scientific research should enable us to classify facts accurately  and carefully without any bais. The result of our data should be based on the facts resulting from the actual data and not on our own subjective or emotional values. Non-data based conclusion mislead to the organization and support in the  reduction of performance.

·         Testability:- researcher develops hypothesis logically in scientific research. Hypothesis is the estimation of relationship between the variables. Such relationship is established logically. Relationships are tested using various statistical and mathematical tools in scientific research.

·         Precision:- precision reflects the degree of exactness of the results. The conclusion drawn from the scientific research must be nearer to the actual result.

·         Operational definitions:- the variable should be defined in such as way that they can be measured. This eliminates confusion in meaning and communication like, anxiety causes mistakes in the work” then there might be confusion  about anxiety.

·         Generalizability: - it refers to the scope of applicability of the research finding in other organizations too. The wider the range of applicability of the solutions generated by research the more useful the research to the user.

The scientific research process

Scientific research process refers to the works or steps which are to be followed while conducting research process. There are few process of scientific research. In this chapter we will study discuss the mostly widely used process of scientific process.

v  Realizing problems:- first of all researcher should feel the problem for undertaking research. Problems are created due to change in environment or any other reasons. Researcher should realize and worried with such problems. Realizations can be made through feeling, study, experience and observation.

v  Identifications of problems:- after realizing the problems researcher should try to find out causes of problems and actual problem. Researcher should find out the problems and causes through the collections information and analysis of situation. Research should define such problems that helps to minimize time and cost. Hus, researcher should clearly identify the problems.

v  Review of literatures:- literature review refers to the study of previous research documents. Researchers should find out the study gap from the review  literature. It helps to define the problems and find out the methods which are suitable to study over the research problems and issue. It also guide to the researcher in methods of conducting research .

v  Hypothesis formulations:- hypothesis formulations refers to the estimated result of the result of the research. It is estimated on the basis of past studies. It present the relationship of two variables inn the testable form. Researcher finds out the problems relatd factors problems through literature review. On the basis of fact and found from literature review research formulates hypothesis.  It helps to determine methods to be used and data collected.

v  Research design:- research design is  a framework of research. Research works are completed based on research design. It helps to collect evidence in less time and cost. Research design depends on  the objectives of research. It clarifies the way of collecting data, method of analysis and bases of research. Research design is prepared before initiating research. Researchers should find out appropriate research design based on the research problem.

v  Collection of data:- collection of information on the basis of research problem and objectives is referred as data collection. It is the work performed in the field/ outside the organization. Success of research depends largely on data collection. Reliable data collection helps to draw reliable conclusion. A researcher should develop questionnaire, schedule for interview or observation for collecting data. But data collection differs on the basis of objectives, research design and need. Researcher should decide what sort of data and information are essential, before data collection.

v  Data analysis:- A researcher classifies all the collected data and information on the basis of their feature and nature. Classified data are then codified, tabulated and presented in charts . such presented data are analyzed using mathematical, statistical, financial and accounting tools. Most of the researchers use statistical tools for the analysis of data. Mean, median, mode and standard deviation are descriptive statistical tools and t-test, z-tests and  tests are used to test hypothesis. They are inferential statistical tools. Use of statistical tools depends on the research objectives, design and nature of data.

v  Interpretation and generalization:-  After the analysis of the data, certain conclusions can be drawn in relation to hypothesis. Whatever the conclusion are drawn, they are considered as theories. Such conclusions are applied in all the similar organizations which are regarded as generalization. Conclusions without hypothesis are discussed on the basis of previous theories. Such discussions create new issues are require further research.

Paradigms of Research

 

Paradigms are the patterns of beliefs and practices that regulate inquiry within a discipline by providing frames and process through within investigation is accomplished. Major two paradigms  of research are given below:

v  positivism:-  it is the research philosophy that is adopted from natural sciences. According to positivism knowledge develops by investigation the social reality through observing the facts.

v  Interpretive:- unlike positivists interpretivists  hold the view that the social world cannot be understood by applying research principles adopted from the natural sciences and propose that social science requires a different research philosophy.

 

 

Applying the scientific thinking in management problems

Scientific thinking refers to the goal focused problems solving and step-by-step logical, organized and rigorous method that helps to identify the problems gather data analyze the data and draw the conclusions. Research does not based on hunches experience and intuitions alone but it is purposive and rigorous. Some major problems in the use of scientific methods in social science research are given below:

v  Complexity of subject matters:- behaviors of the person  differs with the pace of time and change in situation. Need, interest, value and norms of people differ each other. Social science has unlimited uncontrolled factors. Thus impact of one factor is to be searched in many other very difficult factors. Likewise why people will not be motivated? Various explanations you can give to this questions.

v  Difficult to obtain accurate measurement:- scientific method requires specific measurement. It is difficult to measure exactly the social phenomena. In some case it is essentials to predict the situation based on the behavior of people. Feeling, perceptions, attitude, etc. of the people cannot exactly measured and such factors change with change in time and situations.

v  Misconceived impression of society:-society  have different perceptions then actual one in some issue of social science. Due to the difference in feeling, people do not like to give opinion even if they are ready to give opinion or they do not provide right information. Generally they have misconception about it so they provide opinion on the basis of some preoccupied concept.

v  Subjectivity of social events: generally social events are subjective not objective. Impact of social events relates to other subject too. Thus scientific methods cannot be used in social science research. Social events cannot be measured exactly but conclusion can be drawn from analysis of subjective facts.

v  Emotional tendencies:- social events affect the people so their opinion differs. Generally, the opinon provided at the general situations and after any event differs. Thus behavior and methods of doing works of a person depend on the emotional tendencies.

v  Qualitative of social events:- human behavior can not be explained in quantity. Social events and human behaviors can be explained qualitatively. Social subject or issue are always interrelated and such relationship can be explained subjectively but they can not be measured and explained in quantitative.

v  Lack of universality of social events:- similar social events are not perceived in the similar manner. People understand the events differently as per the context and difference in places. Thus, social research does not get persuasiveness and acceptance all over the world.

Business research:

Business research is conducted to generate accurate information for the use of in decision making. It helps to decision maker to take decision based on accurate objective information. Research information are neither intuitive or nor randomly gathered. It refers to the patient study and scientific investigations where researcher takes antohter more careful look at data to discover new facts.

Types of business research

On the basis of functions business research is classified as experiment, survey, and observational study. On the basis of nature of problems it is classified as follows:

v  Exploratory research:- it is conducted to clarify ambiguous problems. When manager realizes the symptoms of the problems in the organization he /she undertakes the research for better understanding of the dimension of the problems that is termed as exploratory research. This study provides information to use in analyzing situation. Generally this research is conducted to get conclusive evidence. For example; if a company wants to provide residential facility to employees for improving their productivity then a survey is conducted with employees who come from far away and knows their opinion regarding residential facility. It will help to the managers to take decision either to provide such facilities to the employees or not.

v  Descriptive research:- Descriptive research is conducted to describe the characteristics of population or phenomena. Descriptive research seeks the answer of who, what, when, where and how questions. This research usually helps to segment the market of the business organizations. For example; business research is conducted to determine the characteristics of consumer who purchase chicken meat products in Nepal so as to segment the market of chicken meat. It shall provide accurate information which helps to solve the business problems but if the survey information is wrong then that will mislead to the managers and finally hampers to the business performance.

v   Causal research :- A research is that is conducted to see the relationship among variables is considered as causal research. It is conducted to explain expectation of relationship like; prediction of sales due to change in packaging, advertising, innovation etc. researcher requires certain types of evidence to understand and predict relationship. When business organizations want to change in their Strategies and policies they undertake causal research. This type of research. This type of research helps to the business managers to take decisions either to invest in any activity or not. Thatswhy this research is considered more important in business.

Role of business research

Business research is basically related to solving the business problems providing concrete information for decision making. Thus, business research plays, the following roles:

v  Informational roles:- business research collect the information from internal record and outside stakeholders and provides deep insight regarding issue or problems of business to the concern of people.

v  Evaluate of methods:-business research  evaluate methods that have been applied by organizations and suggested the better method that helps to the business community to be more efficient in their concerned sector.

v  Roles of knowledge developer for practical purpose:- business research analyses the information related to various business problems in macro and micro levels that helps to obtain practical knowledge and solve the problems of business. Business situation is ever changing. So, it creates new knowledge that fits to the new situation.

v  Role of planner and decision making:- business research provides hard facts that serve s base for planning, decision making project implementation and evaluation.

v  Roles of intelligence:- business research accumulates the information from public proceeding press release and web-sites of government agencies and competitive organizations and provides such information to its client organization that helps to gain competitive advantages.  

Value for decision Making

Research provides the supports in the following dimensions of decision making.

v  Identify problems:= business research helps to determine the nature of situations or identify the existence of problems in the organizations. Business research is used as a scanning activity to provides information about what is occurring within an organizations or in the environment. It scans th  environment and helps to identify potential problems that may take place in the organization and helps to understand such situations like change in socio-economics situation and impact of it in the organization.

v  Diagnosing and assessing problems and opportunities:- after identifying the problems or potential opportunities researcher should diagnose situation so as to clarify the situation. The manager should gain insight about  the underlying factors causing the situations. If there is problems, they need to specify the problems and causes.

v  Selecting the course of actions:- after identification of alternative course of action, research is often conducted to obtain specific information that will aid in evaluating the alternatives and selecting the best course of actions. Objective information generated by research to forcast environmental occurrence may be the foundation for selecting a particular course of actions.

v  Implementations of course of actions:- the best plan may also  fail if it is not properly implemented. A manager can undertake the research to find out the tactis to implement the course of action. Research provides real information regarding the situations so that the manger can prepare various subsidiary plans to implement course of action.

v  Evaluating the course of actions:- evaluation refers to the formal and objective measurement and appraisal of the extent to which given activity project or program has achieved its objectives. After the executions of course of actions research serve as a tool to inform managers whether planned activities are properly executed and achieved the result as expected.  

Ethics in Business Research

Ethics in Business Research

What are Ethics?

Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our relationship with others. As in other aspects of business, all parties in research should exhibit ethical behavior. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffered adverse consequences from research activities.

This objective is usually achieved. However, unethical activities are pervasive and include violating non disclosure agreement, breaking respondent confidentiality, misrepresenting results, deceiving people, invoicing irregularities, avoiding legal liability, and more.

As research is designed, several ethical issues must be balanced.

Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our relationships with others. Ethics differ from legal constraints, in which generally accepted standards have defined penalties that are universally enforced. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from research activities.

As research is designed, several ethical considerations must be balanced:

• Protect the rights of the participant or subject.
• Ensure the sponsor receives ethically conducted and reported research
• Follow ethical standards when designing research 
• Protect the safety of the researcher and team
• Ensure the research team follows the design

In general, research must be designed so a respondent does not suffer physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment, or loss of privacy. Begin data collection by explaining to respondent the benefits expected from the research. Explain that their rights and well being will be adequately protected and say how that will be done. Be certain that interviewers obtain in the inform consent of the respondent. The use of deception is questionable; when it is used, debrief any respondent who has been deceived.

Many sponsor wishes to under take research without revealing themselves.
Sponsors have the right to demand and receive confidentiality between themselves and the researchers. Ethical researcher provides sponsors with the research designed needed to solve the managerial question.

The ethical researcher shows the data objectively, despite the sponsors preferred outcomes.

The research team’s safety is the responsibility of the researcher. Researcher should require ethical compliance from team members in following the research design, just as sponsors expect ethical behavior from the researcher.

Many companies and research firms have adopted a code of ethics. Several professional associations have detailed research provisions. Of interest are the American Association for Public Opinion Research, the American Marketing Association, the American Political Science Association, the American Psychological Association, and the American Sociological Association. Federal, state, and local governments have laws, policies, and procedures in place to regulate research on human beings.

 

 

Ethical consideration in business research

The objective of research in business is to find out exact condition of phenomena. The exact conditions of phenomena is where researcher flows steps in the scientific research. If any steps is skipped the research cannot be scientific and becomes unethical. Ethics are the set of practices that differentiate what should be done and what should not be done. In the business research are considerations for making the scientific research are given below:-

v  Honesty/politeness

v  Participative;

v  Avoid the falsifying the data

v  Informed consent

v  Voluntary participations

v  Confidentially and announces

v  Obligation to sponsor 

Chapter 2:-Literature Review and Theoretical frameworks 

Concept of literature review:-

Going through previous studies and books with the purpose of knowing the research issue in detail and find out appropriate methodology is known as literature review. It is the critical examinations evaluations and scanning of related literature in order to find out what other have said about the going to be studied. It is the consultations of literature that said what others have done. What are their finding what are the methods they used and what is remaining? It informs the researcher about past research on the topic and prevent him from selecting the topic which was already taken. A comprehensive study of document and preparations of summary of such study on a topic is known as literature review.

According to Walliman:-“a literature review is a summary and analysis of current knowledge about a particular topic or areas of enquiry”

Purpose of literatures:

The major purpose of literature review are given below:

v  To know the research conducted in the chosen field:- literature review provides information regarding the issues on which researches were conducted in the past. It helps to the researcher to find out the issue that remained untouched and helps to avoid needless duplication in the research work. If you undertake the research in the issues of that was already studied by others then your work is unless/worthless.

v  To identify the gap:- a researcher find out the untouched area or areas of contradiction after the literature review which is known as research gap. Afeter going through the  literatures, researcher can find out areas of contradiction that can be taken as topic for the further research.

v  To develop theoretical framework:- literature review provides the foundation for developing a comprehensive theoretical framework helps to develop to the hypothesis. Researcher can undertake an empirical research testing hypothesis using various statistical and econometric tools.

v  To develop research design:- research design refers to the entire plan of the research. Before designing the research plan researcher  should decide about the variable to be included measuring tools and techniques procedures.

v  To update on current issues:- literature review helps to the researcher to know about the current empirical or theoretical issue or particular area of research. Issue are changing because of dynamism in environment.

v  To know the methods of data analysis:- data should be analyzed to draw the conclusion. Conclusion drawn by the uses of appropriate tools will be reliable. Literature review provides ideas regarding the appropriate tools for different nature of data.

v  To know the research design:- different design are used for conducting research in different subjects. After the literature review, a researcher gets idea that what short of design is appropriate for his/her study.

v  To assess of the success of research design:- different researches sue different design while conducing research. A researcher can evaluate the result of various research design that helps to find out success of various research design.

Kinds of literature review

There are three kind of literature which are given  blows:

1.      Primary literature:- unpublished research , private correspondence and conference proceeding are considered as primary literature.

2.      Secondary literature:- published books, articles, news, media, and published business government private and international bodies publications.

3.      Tertiary literature;- this source is getaway to secondary sources. They includes encyclopedias, dictionaries, citation, indexes, catalogues, and web based. Portal and data bases.

Relation of literature to research

Literature and research has relationship in different domains. Some of the domains of relationship are given below:

1.      Know the concept: Researcher should have concept related to their area of study. Such concepts and domains of the concepts can be obtained from the study of previous literatures. It helps to proceed further to the study.

2.      Select topic:- Generally, academic research topics are selected from the gap of the previous studies. Researcher can find out the gap from the previous studies and finalize the topic of his/ her study.

3.      Identify variables:- After deciding the topic, a researcher should find out the major domains which can measure the concept of the study. Researcher can find out such prominent domains going through previous literatures.

4.      Frame conceptual framework:- Researcher should establish the relationship between the dependent and independent variables before conducting research. Such relationship is assessed only through the relationships established by the previous studies.

5.      Decide research design:- Literature provides ideas to the researchers about research designs that are used in the study of different issues. Researcher can decide the research design for their studies based on the study of previous literatures.

6.      Select the instruments for data collection:- A researcher can collect data using various techniques and tools like questionnaire, interview, observation, etc. A researcher can decide the appropriate instrument for data collection going through previous literature.

7.      Select tool for data analysis:- Various analysis tools can be used to analyze data. But appropriate of tool depends on nature and types of data. So, a researcher can decide the analysis tool with the help f literature review.

 

Theoretical framework and its format

A theoretical framework is a conceptual model that shows the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as important to the problems. It is the prepaid after the literature review and interview with the concerned party and defining and problem. It present logically to the previous research result and develops scientific bases relating to the assumptions with theories. It presents the relationship between dependent and independent variables that helps to develop hypothesis. A networks that shows the relationship between dependent and independent of moderating variables is known as theoretical framework. It deals with variable of our study and tends to show the relationship between them. The frameworks that show the kind of relationship among the variables of purposed study. It gives the pathway for completing research in allocated time and resources.

 

Needs of Theoretical Frameworks for Research

Theoretical framework identifies the variable, states the relationship of two or more variable and reasons of expecting such relationship. Thus, theoretical frameworks is essential while undertaking research du to the following reasons.

v  It helps the researcher to see clearly the variable of the study.

v  It provides a general frameworks for data collections.

v  It provides a general framework for data analysis.

v  It is essential in preparing a research  proposal using descriptive and experimental methods.

v  It helps to connect theories with studies.

v  It shows the relationship between variables based on the previous studies.

Research and theory

Every research is based on theory. Research and theory are mutually relate. Theory has different component like; proposition, concept, construct, operational, definition, variable, hypothesis and model. Every research is based all above components. Most of the basic research contributes to improvement in the theory. When theories are tested in different situations and the results are similar then it contributes to the development of model. Thus, theory helps to undertake research in the systematic way and research helps to improve in the existing theory or develop new theory. Therefore, they are reciprocally related to each other. It is important for researcher to recognize the pervasiveness and value theory. Theory serves us in many useful ways it.

v  Narrows down the facts we needs to study

v  Suggest which research approaches are likely to yield the greatest meaning.

v  Suggest a system for a researcher to impose on data in order to classify them in the most meaningful way.

Research approach

A.      Deductions reasoning approaches:- under  this approaches, research works moves from the general information to the specific information. It is the top down approaches, so researcher start at the top with very broad spectrum of information and they work their way down to a specific conclusion. It can be summarized as follows:                                              begin with theory-narrow down to specific hypothesis-observations for collecting data and test the hypothesis-ultimately leads to confirmation of the original theory refusing some dimensions of it and arriving at a conclusions.

B.      Inductions reasoning approach:- it works the the opposite way of deductive reasoning. It moves from specific observations to broaders generalizations and theories. It is a bottom-up approach. The researcher begins with specific observations and measures, detects patterns, formulate some tentative hypothesis to explore and finally ends up developing some general conclusions or theories.

Steps/guidelines f or conducting literature review

            There are various way of literature review. Various researcher  uses different ways of review. But all the researcher should consider to the following points while reviewing literature.

v  Easy issue is to be comprehensively  raised and specialized concentrating on research problems.

v  Researcher should discard the unnecessary materials.

v  Original source is to be used if it is possible.

v  Researcher should incorporate objective, methodology and major finding in  the literature review.

v  Researcher should consider that how we can use the avaible materials and how to remove weakness of such materials.

v  Researcher should arrange the materials on the basis of rationality and they should be organized logically

v  Researcher should analyze the related materials only.

v  Explanations and definitions of the subject must b made on the basis of review result.

Searching, obtaining and evaluating the literature

While researching literature a researcher should consider to the card and catalogue maintained and in the libraries of the universities or other independent groups, clubs and committee computerized catalogue subject literature guides CD-ROM technologies and online database.  A researcher can take the help of computer and locate the required material. If they are not able to find out the required materials they can take help of library staff. CD-ROM provides technology provides the bibiographics details article graphics book and abstract of research work and full text of the research works. Now days the researcher use internet for locating the essential literature they may not be  relevant. Thus researcher should precisely identify the literature that is useful for their study.

Reading and review of the literature

After getting the literature reviewer should go through all materials or abstract so as to identify the relevant and non-relevant literatures. While reviewing the material researcher should locate the relevant sections of the books articles and other materials and note of them. If you find the useful materials while reading you should note down of them. You can note the direct quotation in hanging from or keeping within inverted comma. You should down the following things while reviewing the empirical evidence.

·         Title of the study

·         Authors,

·         Year of publications

·         Objective of the study

·         Problems and statement /hypothesis

·         Research  methodology used

·         Research finding

·         Conclusion

Evaluating the literatures:-

All the materials collect may not be equally important and useful to the present research works. Some literature that are collected may not be accurate and reliable. Thus researcher should evaluate the materials based on the following criteria.

·         Accuracy

·         Authors

·         Publisher

·         Scope

·         Style

·         Use of methodology

·         Illustrations tables and diagrams

·         Update information

Researcher should first evaluate the introductions part. While evaluating it, researcher should see the clarity of purpose, follow of research problems and theoretical frameworks followed by hypothesis and testability of hypothesis.

phases/steps in the literatures reviews

the major steps/phases in the literature review are given belows:

v  Listing source

v  Obtaining

v  Critical examinations of literature review

v  Note taking

v  APA style:

Sources of literature review

Review of previous works related to research topic is known as literature review. To review the concept of  research various source document are needed. Those important document or source of literature are given below:

v  Books:- a researcher needs to know the concept of related topics and variable used in research. To know the theories which are related to the research to[ic a researcher should review the various books. Books are fund in libraries.

v  Research articles:- research article provides the most up-to-date information in the topic under study and often cover subject not readily found in the books. Review of articles provides overview of a subject with extensive reference lists and makes excellent starting places for research.

v  Abstracts:- it provides summary of the articles. The information can be crucial in deciding whether the articles is valuable to read entirely. Abstract incorporate the summary of the research works source of information and data research methodology and major facts found during the course of research.

v  Reports:- reports are published by the government and  non-government and national and international organization are also the source of literature review. They prepare such reports after the completions of research works. As well the reports and document presented in the workshop seminar and meeting are also the important source of literature.

v  Dissertations;- dissertations prepared by the Ph.D and master level scholar are also major sources of literature for academic research. Researcher should review the dissertations related to the topics.

v  Directories:- directories provides the useful information about organization or individual and are useful guides to other source of information. There are a numbers of directories that list ongoing. Research and it is wise to check out that your research is not going to duplicate an existing research.

v  The internet:- the worldwide web provides a multimedia interface to the internet and webpages provides links to information and document. The internet provides access to library catalogues, online data base and electronic journals.

Chapter 3:-Problem Definition and Hypothesis Formulations

Concept:-

Research problem is  a gap between actual and desired outcomes. A problem could simply indicate an interest in an issue where finding the right answer might hekp to improve an existing situations. Problem definition is clear and precise statement of question or issue that is to be investigate for finding an answer. Problem definition refers to the existing business problems where a manager is looking for situations, situation that is not put any problems at present but managers thing should be improved. Generally research problems is an interrogative sentence and they present the relationship of variables which are unclear.

Steps in problem formulations:

There are some steps that are to be followed while formulating problems. They are given below:

v  Identifications of broad problems areas:- first of all  researcher should develop research idea from the observation theory and need to be solve the problems that are encountering by the organizations. Researcher may observed events incidentally or systematically and make the planned observations go through the published report research develop idea about the area of research where he/she undertake the research.

v  Divide the subject areas in the sub-areas: the subject areas of your interest may be broad and you need to divide it into small areas. For example if your areas is children nutrition then you can dissect it into malnutrition in children diseases childhood morality.

v  Decide about areas:- select an areas among all the sub-areas one that interest you most. This will help inn creating a research problems among which you have to choose one.

v  Defining problem:- after identifying the broad problem area researcher should get insight into the problems. A researcher can define problem analyzing the situation. A researcher can take information through interview or personal conversation to define the problems.

v  Deciding about the objectives:- objectives are the possible answer to the research problems that you have formulated. The objective need to be specific in nature but you can also generate general objectives. Objective must be attainable in time and with the available technical financial and human resources.

Research Questions

Research questions is a statement designed/developed in the research that identifies the factors to be studied. Basically research questions are clearly tells about the factors you attempt to learn. The objective of research must match to each other. Research question help to you to do work in the trend as you intended. A research try to find out the answer off all those questions while undertaking the research works. While developing the research question a researcher should identify area of interest and have preliminary survey or literature overview and find out the variables.

Types of research questions:

Mainly research questions are classified into three groups which are given below:

1.      Descriptive questions:-  the questions that are designed to describe what is going on or existing position of events objects or issue then such questions are known as descriptive questions.

2.      Observational/ relational questions:- the questions that are designed to know the relation between two or more variables under study are known as observational or relational questions.

3.      Causal or cause and effect questions:- the questions that are designed to determine the effect of one or more causes to one or more outcomes variables. It tries to find out the effect and after and before occurring any events in the organizations.

Hypothesis

Hypothesis is the statement that shows the guess relationship between independent and dependent variables. Hypothesis formulations of require base. Hypothesis is generate through a number of ways but usually the result of process of inductive reasoning where observation leads to formations of theory. The relationship is estimated on the basis of the network of association established in the theoretical frameworks formulate for the research works. A good hypothesis shows the  directions of research and relationship between the variables and helps to find out the solutions of the problems.

FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS:

Major functions of hypothesis are given belows:-

v  Shows the areas of emphasis:- it shows where the emphasis is to be given in research. It clearly identifies the variables to be studied so that researcher can get the idea about the area where emphasis to be given.

v  Provides the guideline for collecting data:- it direct the researcher regarding collection of information and data and provides guidelines for prioritizing the nature of data.

v  Inform about areas of subjectivity priority:- it helps to give a subjective priority on the certain elements. It clearly identifies the issues and events on which subjective analysis is essential for conducting research.

v  Basis of research:-   it is a major basis of research hypothesis is tested using various statistical tools. If hypothesis is proved by the various statistical tests then such hypothesis becomes theory. Developments theory is the major outcome of the research.

v  Help to test empirically:- hypothesis are the testable statement. They can be tested using mathematical tools. Such tested results are considered as valid one.

 

 

 

Features or criteria of a good hypothesis:

Hypothesis is a declarative statement that helps to draw conclusions. Thus, it should have some qualities which are given below:

v  Power of prediction:-one of the valuable attribute of good hypothesis is to predict for future. It not only clears the present problematic situation but also predects or the future that what would be happened in the coming time. So hypothesis is best guide of research activity due to power of predictor.

v  Simplicity:- a hypothesis should be understandable to every layman.  A  hypothesis would be simple if a researcher has more insight toward the problems. Researcher should use simples words and sentences while developing hypothesis.

v  Clarity:- a hypothesis must be conceptually clear. It should be clear and should not contain ambiguous information. The terminology used in it must be clear and acceptable to every one.

v  Testability:- a good hypothesis should be empirically. It should be formulated after the verifications  and deep observation. Thus, testability is the prime features of a good hypothesis.

v  Relevant to problems:- a hypothesis is guideline for identification and solutions of the problems, thus, it should be relevant and accordance to the problems.

v  Specifics:- it should be formulated for a specific and particular problems. It should not be include generalization. If generalization exists, then hypothesis cannot research to the correct conclusion.

v  Relevant to the available technology:- hypothesis must be relevant to the techniques which is available for testing. A researcher must know about the workable techniques before formulating hypothesis.

v  Consistency and harmony:- internal consistency and harmony and is major characteristics of good hypothesis. It should  out of of contradiction and conflicts. There must be a close relationship between variables which one is depend on others.

 

Types and formats of Hypothesis

Hypothesis is formulated based on the estimated relationship between two or more variables. Formats of hypothesis differ as per the nature of relationship of variables.  On the basis of formats used in research, hypothesis can be classified into different groups. They are given below:

v  Descriptive hypothesis:- descriptive hypothesis present the existences size, types and distribution of variables. Descriptive  hypothesis contains the only one variables. So , it does not present the relationship between or among the variables. Thus, researchers often use a research questions rather then descriptive hypothesis. Generally this hypothesis describe the situation and  helps to clear their thinking about the likely relationship to be found.

v  Relational hypothesis:- hypothesis  that explains the relationship between two or more then variables is known as relational hypothesis. Relational hypothesis is divided into two groups i.e correlation hypothesis and explanatory or causal hypothesis. Co relational hypothesis states that the variables occur together in some specified manner without implying that one cause of the other. such weeks are claims are made when some causal force that affect both varrible and when we have not developed enough evidence to claims strong linkage.  A hypothesis which formulate based on the assumptions that change in one variable (independent variables) change in a nothe variable (dependent variables) is known as exploratory or causal hypothesis.

v      Directional and non-directional hypothesis:- a hypothesis that is formulated using the words more and less likes, and dislikes or comparing two variables is known as directional hypothesis. It is also known as directional because it gives directions to the relationship of the two variables. For examples women employees are more loyal towards organization then male employees. If b any hypothesis shows the relationship or difference between variable but does not direct the relationship such hypothesis is known as non-directional hypothesis. In other words even though the relationship between the various variable can be estimated but their relations remains positive or negative that can not be declared such hypothesis is non-directional hypothesis. For examples there is relationship between age and job satisfactions

v  Null and alternative hypothesis:- the null hypothesis is a proposition that a definite or exact relationship between two variables. It states that the population correlation between two variables is equal to zero or that the difference inn the means two groups inn the population between two variable or no difference between two groups in the population is equal to zero. In general null statement is expressed as no relationship[p between two variables or indicating difference between two groups. The alternative hypothesis is statement is expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating difference between groups. It is exactly opposite of null hypothesis. Null hypothesis is donated by H0 and alternative hypothesis is donated by H1. Formulating the hypothesis are as follows:-

v  H0:- effective training does not increase the productivity of employees.

v  H1:-effective training increase the productivity of employees.

There are many types of error in the sue of hypothesis research. They are given below:-

1.      Type-I error: such error takes place when researcher  rejects hypothesis because statistical tools reject it even through it is correct.

2.      Type-II error:- such error takes places when researcher accepts hypothesis even though it is wrong because statistical tools to accept it. Such error is more harmful then previous error.

Chapter4:-Research Design

Concept of research design

The design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlation, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research problem, hypotheses, independent and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection methods ...   The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. It cycles from the problems selecting data collections measurement and analysis and selection of methods of analysis of data draw conclusion and generalization of finding based on the availability of resource tools. It is an overall plan of completing the research works. It present works of research serially from the beginning to the ends logical way. After selecting the issue of research a  researcher formulates plan and framework for completing his/her research work since beginning till the end is known as research design.

Features of Research design

It  is prepaid on the basis on the basis of certain procedures. Thus, it requires some qualities that are given below.

v  Reliability

v  Objectivity

v  Validity

v  Replicabilty

v  Generalizability

 

 

 

Elements of Research Design

Research design is overall plan of undertaking the research. Thus, it must cover the whole dimension of the research so, a good research design must have following elements.

v  The problems:- first of all research design should clearly identify and define the research issues. Until   and unless the nature of the research issues  is not clear we can not decide about the data collection and analysis methods and procedures.

v  Methods and techniques of data collections:- a researcher should collect data based on the nature of the research problems. Some researcher requires primary data and others. The secondary data. As well as there are number of techniques for collecting the primary data.

v  Methods and techniques of data analysis:- various tools are developed by statistician and econometrician for analyzing data. But all the tools will not be appropriate in the entire situation. Thus, research design should indicate the analytical tools that are used while undertaking research works.

v  Population and sample:- research design should clearly indicate the populations sample, sampling  procedures, procedures and sample size. As well it should explain the techniques of data collections and analysis.

v  Objective of the study:- research design should clearly spell the general and specific objective of undertaking the research works.

v  Report writing: research  design clearly defines the types of report and procedures of writing reports. It shows the chapter outlines of the research reports. It provides  guidelines to make cohesive to the research reports.

v  Time periods:- a time  frameworks for every resources works should be given so that the every dimensions of research work can be completed with in the given time periods.

v  Dimensions and sociological context of the study:- research  design should be identify the dimension that will be considered while conducting the research and social environmental forces where the finding of the study will be implemented.

Types of research

A  details plan that is prepared to search the answer of the research problems is known as research problems. Research design should be selected based on research objectives, nature of research and availability of resources. Different research design are used to search the answer of the different research questions. Thus, entire research designs are classified in the following categories.

What are the Different Types of Research Designs Methods ?

It is crucial that you select a suitable research design before any research is started. Various types can be classified as:

1. Historical Research Design – The idea is to gather, validate, synthesize evidence to establish facts which defend or oppose your hypothesis. It makes use of primary sources, secondary sources, and a lot of qualitative data sources for example logs, diaries, official data, reports, and so on. The issue is that the sources need to be both authentic and valid.

2. Case Study: It is an in-depth investigation of a specific research problem as opposed to a sweeping statistical survey. It is usually employed to limit a very wide area of research into one or a few easily research-able examples. The case study research design can also be helpful for testing whether a particular theory and model actually pertains to phenomena in real life. It is a useful design if not much is known about a phenomenon.

3. Descriptive research: Descriptive research includes much government backed research such as the population census, the gathering of a broad range of social indicators and economic information for example household expenditure patterns, time use studies, employment and crime statistics.

4. Causal Design: Causality research could be regarded as understanding a phenomenon with regards to conditional statements in the form, “If A, then B.” This kind of research is utilized to determine what affect a certain change may have on present norms and assumptions. The majority of social scientists seek causal explanations which reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect takes place when variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, results in, on average, in variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.

5. Longitudinal Research Design: A longitudinal study consists of a panel, which is a fixed sample of elements. The elements could be shops, retailers, individuals, or other entities. The panel, or sample, stays relatively constant over time, despite the fact that members may be added to replace dropouts or to keep it representative. The sample members in a panel are calculated regularly over time, in contrast with the one-time measurement in a cross-sectional study.

6. Cross-Sectional Design: Cross-sectional research designs have 3 exclusive features: no time dimension, a reliance upon present differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are chosen according to existing differences as opposed to random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only measure differences between or from among a number of people, subjects, or phenomena instead of change. As a result, researchers employing this design can only use a relative passive approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

7. Correlation or Prospective Research Design: It tries to discover relationships to make predictions. It uses one set of subjects with a couple of variables for each.

8. Cohort Design: A cohort study is a research program looking into a specific group with a certain trait, and observes over a period of time. A few examples of cohorts may be those who have taken a certain medicine, or have a medical problem.

9. Observational Design: This kind of research design draws a conclusion by evaluating subjects against a control group, in situations where the researcher doesn’t have control over the experiment. There are a couple of general types of observational designs. In direct observations, people realize that you are watching them. Unobtrusive measures include any way of studying behavior where individuals have no idea they are being observed. An observational study allows a good insight into a phenomenon and eliminates the ethical and practical complications of establishing a large and cumbersome research project.

10. Experimental Research Design: This design is best suited in controlled settings for example labs. The design assumes random assignment of subjects and random assignment to groups (A and C). It tries to investigate cause and affect associations where causes could be manipulated to generate different types of effects. Due to the requirement of random assignment, this design can be challenging to carry out in the real world (non laboratory) setting.

11. Philosophical Design: This method makes use of the tools of argumentation based on philosophical traditions, concepts, models, and theories to critically explore and challenge, for instance, the relevance of logic and evidence in academic debates, to evaluate arguments about fundamental problems, or to discuss the cause of existing discourse about a research problem.

Types of research Design

research design should be selected based on the research objectives nature of research and availability of resource. Different research designs are used to search the answer of the different research questions. Thus, entire research design are the classified in the following categories. 

v  Exploratory research design:- a research design that is used to identify the problems and analysis of problems selections of alternatives and find new idea in the area where is less knowledge is known as exploratory research design. Exploration is useful when researcher lack of clear idea of the problems. Exploratory research develops concept more clearly establishes to priorities develop operational definitions and improve the final research design. This design is less structured and more flexible. This design uses informal approach and explains the problems and collect the data. Exploratory research design formulates hypothesis and present the clear situation and provides directions for formal situations. Following methods are used while using this research design.

o   Gaining the knowledge on concerned subject reviewing available literature.

o   Enquiring and interviewing about the matters with concerned people so that more knowledge about the research problems can be obtained.

o   Analyzing the qualitative data and information collected from various sources.

o   Preparing the research reports after the completion of all above works.

v  Descriptive research design:-  a research design that is developed with the aim of the studying the subject or research details and explains the facts and characteristics related to research problems is known as descriptive research design. It collect and present the facts and figures in certain situations. The goal of the descriptive study is to describe relevant aspect of the factors of interest to the researcher from an individual organization or other perspective. It uses the scientific methods for collecting classifying and analysis related data facts and figures. Research related to prediction explanations of facts and individual group or situation is descriptive research. Following works are to be performed while using  this types of research design.

o   Determinations of study objective

o   Collections of sample

o   Preparing procedures for collecting data.

o   Collections of data

o   Processing and analyzing data.

o   Preparing reports incorporating facts.

Descriptive study can be undertaken using following methods.

Case study:- case  study is involves  a details and intensive analysis of any single event or case. Case study methods entails the detail and intensive analysis of event or social issue. It analysis the events through the observations and comes to know to the positions of the total units. Qualitative method is used to collect  information and data. Following steps should be step be followed by while implementing case study.

o   Determine the objectives

o   Preparing and improving questions and concentrating few event.

o   Collections of  data from various sources.

o   Arranging evidence and analysis of event of explaining in details.

o   Preparing reports summarizing the facts and providing suggestions.

Development research design:-a research design used to predict  the future trends considering to the changes in events in the human social and cultural activities is known as developmental research design. This research design is used to study the variable of specified time correlations between variable rate of change directions and other inter-related subjects. Developmental research is classified into various groups which are given below:

o   Longitudinal growth study

o   Cross sectional growth study

o   Trend study

o   Cohort study

v  Co relational study:  a study that is used to study the relationship between two or more variables is known as correlational study. In correlational study it is assumed that if there is changes in one variable then there will be the change in other variable. The main aim of this research design is to see the relationship and the degree of relationship between variables. Correlations may be positive or negative. Increases in one vrriable leads to increase to other variables is known as positive correlation. For examples increase in advertisement increase in sales is positive correlation. While increasing one variables leads to decrease to the other variable is known as negative correlation. For example, increase in the salary of employees decrease profit of an  organizations.  Following steps should be followed while using correlational research design.

o   Defining problems reviewing literature

o   Developing conceptual design

o   Collections of data.

o   Analysis and interpretation of result.

v  Causal comparative research design:-  a research design that is used to show the causes of the problems is known as causal comparative research design. It observe the position of causes that impact on certain works. It explain the relationship of two variables after the study of the problems. It is also known as Ex-post facto research design. This study analysis the performance of organization after and before any events. Researcher consider to one or more variable and analysis the related data to find cause of their relationship. Such research requires to two groups for selected for compression. The main aims of this research is to assess the of difference in two groups. Following steps should be followed while using this research design.

o   Defining research problems

o   Reviewing concerned literatures

o   Formulating hypothesis preparations list of assumptions of hypothesis and research process.

o   Preparing the conceptual design.

o   Providing the authenticity and reliability of data collection method

o   Analyzing and interpreting the result concisely and precisely.

v  Experimental research:-  the research controls all other variables and conduct research considering two few variables through observation or experiment is known as experimental research design. In this research variables under study are free and all other variables and controlled. It is used to provides a stronger basis for existence of causal relationship between dependent and independent variable. The main of this research is to see the relationship formulating and hypothesis. It can be used in laboratory and work field. Work field has real life situation. The researcher need to be able control the influence of one or more variables on the dependent variable for the use of this research design.

v  Quasi-experimental research:- - This research design approximates the experimental design but does not have a control group. There is more error possible in the results. When design not meet randomization and control requirement necessary for controlling the influence of unnecessary variables a  Quasi-experimental research is the second best choice.

v  Basic principles of research design

Principles are the fundamental assumptions. There are some fundamental assumptions in the selections of research design which are given below:-

v  principles of flexibility

v  principle of timeliness

v  principles of replications

v  principles of objective

v  principles of generalizability

v  principles of reliability

v  validity

qualitative research
all the issue of research are not measurable and cannot be converted into number of can not be quantified. Especially the issues/subject of social science research are related to human behavior culture, trends, relationship and human values and norms. So, it is very difficult to quantify such subject. Such subject need to be interpreted in depth. Thus, research which is conducted to interpret analysis and obtain in-depth knowledge of an issue/subject is known as qualitative research.  It provides details of the events or incident which were not expected. Qualitative techniques are based at the both data collection and analysis stage of the research works. At the stage of data collections the list of techniques like focus groups discussion individual depth interview, case studies grounded theory action research and observations re used. Qualitative research draws data from a variety of sources. Qualitative research is carried out on small samples of the population. For example, you may be interested in researching a segmented group of your target audience such as a particular buyer persona or age group (e.g. Travel enthuastists, females in the 20-25 age bracket.) Qualitative research.

 Those sources are:-

·         individual or group

·         organizations intuition

·         texts i.e published un[ublished including virtual ones.

·         Environment i.e visual/ sensory and virtual materials.

·         Objectives and media products i.e textual/visual/sensory and virtual materials.

·         Elements and happening i.e textual/visual/sensory and virtual materials.

Features of qualitative research:-

Qualitative research is based on the subjective information. Such qualitative are considered as the features of qualitative research. Some of the major features of qualitative research are given belows.

·         Interpretive:- qualitative research are human behavior understanding motivations and similar types of hidden qualities of people. It analysis and interpret the events and functions or problems tries t find out the reason for occurring events or problems. s

·         Based on qualitative facts:- qualitative research uses subjective information rather then quantitative information. It analysis the subjective information and explain the situation to explore the real casues and procedures of occurring the events.

·         Purposive sampling :- purposive sampling is used in qualitative research. Researcher does not consider to the representation of populations. He/she only select as sample to those units which can give meaningful response/o the the researcher regarding nay events or issue.

·         Change in research design:-Research  design  can be changed  when & where essential . If researcher thinks that  the  research design i.e. sample size, data  collection & tools for analysis, creates hindrances then he/she can change any or whole parts of the research design.

·         Self collections of data :- It is better to collect the data by the researcher himself because he/she gets the opportunity to get information from the gesture of respondents. Sometimes, symbols speak louder than words. When researcher collects the data, he/she can get in-depth knowledge putting more questions.

·         Holistic assumptions. Qualitative research assumes that there are no single facts for the occurrence of events/issues. There will be the multiple facts/reasons for the occurrence of events/issues. Perception of  people over such facts/issues changes with the pace of time & change in other factors like age, experience etc.

Assumptions of qualitative research

Assumptions are the fundamental facts. It helps to carry out the activities. Qualitative research has some fundamental assumptions which are given below.

·         Research keep the holistic approach:-Qualitative research explains to any events or issues or issues considering to all the causes of occurrence, process & other activities & relationship between or among the variables. Thus, it does not explain the events based on the single facts It considers to every related facts while explaining the events/issues. Thus it  keeps holistic approach.

·         Research is incorporates emergent design:- Quantitative research uses only predetermined research design & design can’t be changed during the course of conducting research. But qualitative research can apply  research design while collecting data, if it is essential. Researcher requires changing design due to change in context. Researcher can change design where necessary.

·         Research is descriptive:- The main aim of qualitative research is to achieve in-depth information regarding event & problems. Qualitative research explains the subjects matter & process of participation. Thus, it is subjective in nature &explains the events in macro level. So qualitative research is descriptive in nature.

·         Primary concerned with process rather than outcomes:- Qualitative research emphasizes more to the methods that are used in the research. It explains the complex procedures. Thus, it considers more method then the results of the research.

·         Research involves fields of works:-Qualitative research assumes that the researcher collect data & information himself contacting to the respondents personally so that researcher can get in-depth knowledge about the event putting further questions as well can understand the symbolic language & materializes to those information in research.

·         The process of research is inductive:- Qualitative research doesn’t formulate & test any hypothesis. It find out the features of events and causes of occurrence of such events. This work based on the estimation & experience of the researcher. Qualitative research explains to the events so as to make them understandable.

·         Research is subjective:- Qualitative researcher measures any event on the basis of researcher’s intuition. Mathematical & statistical tools are not widely used in the qualitative research. Researcher explains & predicts the event & issues using his/her intuition. So it is more subjective in nature.

 

 Types of qualitative research design

Qualitative research is a descriptive research conducted to achieve in depth information about any events or problems.  Some major qualitative research design are given below:

·         Historical study:- Research collects the past data systematically &makes objective evaluation of the past event or problem so as to understands causes, effect & trends of the events or problems is historical study. It helps to explain present events & anticipate future events.

·         Case study methods:- It is study that considers single unit or case so as know the multiple facet of the problem occurred. It lights on factors with the study of a single case in detail. The case may be an individual, a group, an institution or an event.

·         Grounded theory:- grounded theory is a systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the constructions of theory through the analysis of data. Fashion from social science research is the positivist tradition. Unlike positivist research, is study using grounded theory is likely to begin with question or even just with the qualitative data.

·         Ethnography:-  a social science research focuses on a community to explain about the events or problems through close observations of socio-cultural factors is known as ethnography.  

·         Participative research:-  a researcher conducted to develop reality based local theory that is understandable and actionable is known as participative research. In this research, researcher jointly diagnoses the problem, combines design of the project formulate plan participation build triangular team and makes joint assessment and implements the finding.

Quantitative research is:

• a formal, objective, systematic process for obtaining quantifiable information about the world;
• presented in numerical form, and analysed through the use of statistics;
• used to describe and to test relationships;
• used to examine the cause-and-effect of relationships.

In effect, to put it simply, quantitative research is concerned with numbers, statistics, and the relationships between events/numbers.

Quantitative researchers attempt to remain detached from the study, and from the sample (in studies where the sample is made up of human beings). They strive to maintain objectivity - in other words they try to not influence it with their own personal values, feelings, and experiences.

This is because quantitative researchers believe that researcher involvement in the study could bias it. By 'bias it', they mean that they do not want to sway the study towards the perceptions and values of the researcher, rather than allowing the hard scientific facts to hold sway. Biasing a research study is considered by scientists as being poor scientific technique -  and is definitely a no-no in quantitative research.

Difference between qualitative research and quantitative research

 

Bases of difference	Qualitative research	Quantitative research
Focus of research	It is used to understand and interpret events or problems	It is used to explain and predict the events/situations
Purpose of research	The main aim is to achieve an in-depth understanding of situations and develops of theory	The main of the quantitative research is to explain predict and test and retest the theories.
Preparations of participations	To eliminates the biasness of participants preliminary preparations of participants is desirables.	Preliminary preparations is not essential to reduce or eliminate or biasness.
Approach	It emphasis on inductive approach to see the relationship between theory and research	It emphasis on deductive approach which shows the relationship between  theory and research in which the accent  placed the placed on the testing of theories.
Usefulness	This research useful for innovations and study of events.	This research is useful fo survey and experimental research works.
Sample size	This research uses fewer samples while conducting research	This research uses wide range and large sample while conducting research.

 

Unit:-5 measurement, scaling and sampling

Variables:-

A variable is symbol of an event, act characteristics traits or attributes that can be measured and assigned categorical values. In other words any signal or figure or symbol which represents the quality characters and facts is known as variables.  Value of variable is differ from one activity to next activity. Value of variable differ to some satisfactions are the same examples of variables. Motivation, government policy the member of the organization. It may very   simple and low level in different people thus motivations differ as per person so it is variables. Generally numerical variables are allotted to the variables on the basis of their features that help to keep record and analysis of them. Some variable can be classified only two groups and women employees and unemployed. Such variable are provides 0 and 1 symbols some variables of may classified in groups. For example, employees are highly absent, normally absent and less absent in the organization. According to  F.N Kerlinger:-“ a variables is symbol to which numeral or values are assigned.”

Types of variables

Variable can be classified in the following groups on the basis of their  use in research.

 

v Independent variable:-  a variable which influences dependent variable in positive or negative is known as independent variables. Such variable do not change due to change other variable. But change in independent variables change in other  variables. If independent variable is changed by one unit then dependent  variable will be changed in some degree. For example there is a theory that employee satisfaction  increases ,performance of  employees. It means if employee satisfaction decrease performance also increases .in this example, performance  also decreases and if employee satisfaction but change in performance dose not change in  satisfaction is independent variable.

v Dependent variables:- variables, that are affected by the change in independent variables, known as dependent variables. The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researchers. The researcher goals is to explain or predict the variability in the dependent variables. By the analysis of the new product development increase in sale. Here sale is dependent variable because sales is influenced by the new product development.

v Moderating variables:-   a variable that affect the nature of the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is known as moderating variables. Presence of the modifies the originally expected relationship between the dependent and independent variables. For example the effect of varying level of stress in different employees influence the relationship between the management style and retention.  If there is more stress, employee may leave the job quickly. Gender and age are often moderating variables because stress absorbing capacity depend on the age and gender of the people.

v intervening variables:-   an intervening is one that surface between the time the independent variables operate the influence the dependent variable and their impact on the dependent variable. The intervening variable surface as function of the independent variable/variables and operating in any station and help to conceptualize and explain of the influence of the independent variable on dependent variable for example, generally it is assumed that effective training increase in employees’ commitment but the impact is not similar in all employees studies showed that employees with more job tenure have more commitment. Thus, tenure of the job intervening variable.

Concept of Measurement

 Assigning n umbers of other symbols to any products or event issue or characteristics as per the certain pre-specified rules is known as measurement. Symbols are the means of finding out the characters  of any event.